Introduction to China Doping Control Center

China has established and gradually perfected a unified anti-doping administrative system, providing the work of anti-doping with a forceful organizational support .The Chinese government department in charge of physical culture and sports leads, coordinates and supervises the work; the Chinese Olympic Committee organizes moves and implements the plans; the national sports associations take part in the moves and each takes charge of its field. They constitute the basic frame of China's present anti-doping administrative system.



The main responsibilities of the State Sport General Administration include: formulating major principles, policies and measures for the anti-doping work throughout the nation according to the Law of the People's Republic of China on Physical Culture and Sports; reviewing and approving the long-term Program and annual plans for nation-wide anti-doping work carried out by all the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities, the People's Liberation Army sport association and various national sports associations.



The Chinese Olympic Committee officially set up its Anti-Doping Commission in July 1992. The main responsibilities of the anti-Doping Commission are: formulating the specific policy and measure for the national anti-doping work according to the relevant regulations of the State Sport General Administration and International Federations; making the national doping control program and work plan; implementing the national doping control program; organizing the publicity, education research and international cooperation in the anti-doping field; guiding coordinating and monitoring the anti-doping work of the national sports associations.



The Commission has an Administrative Office and a Testing Section. The Administrative Office is responsible for the harmonization and policy research. The Testing Section is responsible for carrying out the doping control tests and developing anti-doping education project.



The China Doping Control Center (hereafter referred as CDCC), which was set up in 1989 has pass the IOC re-accreditiation for 12 years consecutively. CDCC is responsible for the urine sample analysis and the research of detecting methods.



China Doping Control Center (CDCC) is located in the National Olympic Sport Center, only a few minutes walking to the main stadium, the swimming stadium and the badminton stadium, 1 kilometers to the southeast of the under-planning Olympic Village. With such convenient traffic privilege, it takes only 5 minutes by driving from the Olympic village to CDCC.



CDCC passed the IOC accreditation examination first time in1989 and up to 2000 it has been the only testing laboratory, which has been reaccredited consecutively for 12 years in Asia. In November 2000 CDCC received the certificate of ISO/IEC Guide 25 from the China National Accreditation Committee for Laboratory. It's said that 11 IOC-accredited laboratories received a warning for not finishing the certificate of ISO/IEC Guide 25 and were required to complete the work before May 1, 2001. Otherwise, they would face the punishment of dephasement. Facts proved that CDCC had been always satisfied requirements of the IOC regarding the doping test. Recently, CDCC has signed a new contract with the world Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), agreeing to undertake out-of-competition sample analysis for the Agency.



CDCC has always attached great importance to scientific research in view of improving the test ability of the laboratory. It also developed a number of international research cooperation programs in order to keep up with the latest development of doping test in the world. CDCC received the first prize of the National Science and Technology Progress Award in 1992. Almost every year CDCC will carry out some international cooperation projects. The published research papers were well accepted by the science circle. It cooperated with the Spanish laboratory making a survey on the T/E ratio distribution and reaction to the use of testosterone between Asian and European people. In the cooperation with the Norwegian laboratory a research study on the variation of 19-non-androsterone of Asian and European female athletes during the menstruation was carried out, which further confirm the criteria of androsterone positive set by the IOC. In the lead up to the Sydney Olympic Games, CDCC collaborated with the Australia Sport Drug Testing Laboratory on the EPO research project with the conduction of blood testing and received broad appraisement. Ms.Hon.Jackie Kelly, Australian Minister for Sport and Tourism, forwarded a letter to CDCC on behalf of the Australian Government, extending congratulations and high appreciation for its part in the research project.



There are totally 16 research staff at CDCC, most of them obtain doctor or master degree and graduated from the Chemistry Department of the Beijing University and the Pharmacy Department of the Being University of Medical Science. The majority has more than 5 years experience in doping test. According to the classes of prohibited substances set in the Olympic Movement Anti-Doping Code, the work staff are divided into 5 groups headed by an experienced research fellow with good education background. CDCC has published several papers about doping test on various major academic publications and conferences.



Experts at CDCC hole positions at various major sport organizations and academic bodies. Dr. Yang Tianle, the former director general of the National Research Institute of Sports Medicine has been a member of the IOCMC since 1988 and Asian Olympic Council Medical Committee (AOCMC). Recently he was elected as first Vice President of China Sports Science Society, President of China Sports Medicine Association. Professor Zhang Changjiu, now director general of the Research Institute and former manager of CDCC is acting as Chairman of Doping Commission, Asian Federation of Sports Medicine (AFSM) and Vice-Chairman of Organic Analysis Chemistry Association of China Chemistry Society. Dr. Wu Moutian, manager of CDCC now is a member of IOCMC and Doping Review Board of FINA. Since the Albertvil Winter Olympic Games, Dr. Yang Tianle has been taking part in the doping control supervision work for IOCMC for 6 Summer and Winter Olympic Games. CDCC has undertaken the doping test for various international comprehensive sport events such as the 11th Beijing Asian Games, the 3rd Harbin Asian Winter Games and 1st Shanghai East Asian Games. So in terms of doping test and the handling of positive cases in accordance with relevant rules of IOC, CDCC has obtained adequate and rich experience.



At present CDCC can test 3500 athletes urine samples and about 1200 urine samples of the volunteers for the nutritional products from the National Health Ministry every year. The other key items on the agenda include the IOC annual re-accreditation and proficiency examination and the quality control from sports organizations home and abroad. All the routine test instruments including HRMS and IRMS have been installed at CDCC. All the tests will be carried out strictly according to the requirements of IOCMC and ISO/IEC Guide 25. Undoubtedly the staff and equipment at present stage are far from adequate for undertaking the great test burden during the Olympic Games. But if Beijing succeeded in the bidding for the 2008 Olympic Games, we are determined to organize the doping test with better performance than Sydney did. Since we all know that science and technology are developing so rapidly today. For example, the application of HRMS increased the test sensitivity by 10 times. The original concentration limit is 10ng/ml and now the value is lowered to below 2ng/ml. With IRMS we can determine the reasons for high endogenous steroid concentration or ratio directly, that is to say to distinguish whether it's endogenously produced or it dues to the use of endogenous products. Although the IOCMC has confirmed the HRMS and IRMS as official detecting methods, so far not every IOC-accredited laboratory has mastered the technology for the two instruments.



Under the current condition CDCC can handle 60 urine samples per day. During the important sport events reporting of negative cases within 24 hours and positive cases within 48 hours and B sample analysis can be basically guaranteed. Researchers at CDCC are capable of attending hearings at the invitation to provide scientific evidence home and abroad.



The Testing Section of Chinese Olympic Committee Anti-Doping Commission was set up in 1995 with the responsibility for drafting and implementing the National Doping Control Program including in and out-of competition test. So far the Testing Section has undertaken the doping control for many comprehensive national and inter-national sports events. From the statistics in the following Table, we can see the Testing Section is an effective doping control organization with rich experience. There are 4 full-time work staff at the section and 91 part-time Doping Control Officers (DCOs). All the DCOs must undergo professional training and performance assessment every year and divided into three categories according to their ability and experience.

Besides this, the Testing Section is also responsible for the anti-doping education and publicity work especially the education toward the athletes, coaches and team doctors. In recent years many anti-doping education manual books and brochures were compiled and published and training courses organized. The Chinese Olympic Committee Anti-Doping Commission has signed Memorandum of Understanding in anti-doping field and bilateral test agreements with Norway, Australia and Sweden. Currently a new cooperation project with Norway was being with the requirements of the International Standard for Doping Control (ISDC) and the ISO 9001:2000 standard.

28th Olympic Games: Athens 2004

Date: 13 August - 29 August 2004
NOCs: 202
Venue: 38
Athletes: 11,099
Team officials: 5,500
Sports: 28
Events: 300
Media: 21,500 (16,000 broadcasters, including AOB, and 5,500 photo/written press members)
Security personnel: 45,000 (25,000 police, 7,000 military, 3,000 coast guards, 1,500 fire-fighters, 3,500 private security contractors and 5,000 trained volunteers)

From August 13 to 29, 2004, a total of 11,099 athletes from 202 countries and regions across the world took part in the 28th Olympic Summer Games in Athens, Greece, the country where these Games were originally born and the city where they revived.

For the first time the Olympic flame travelled to all continents. Shot Put was held in ancient Olympia and women competed there for the first time. As many as four billion viewers all over the world watched these Games.

In Athens, 235 Chinese athletes qualified for the finals in 107 events of 23 sports; 83 of them set six world records and 17 Olympic marks and won 32 gold, 17 silver and 14 bronze medals in 55 events of 18 sports, helping China rank second only to the United States (35-39-29) in the final medal standings.

China maintained its dominance in such sports as diving, shooting, table tennis, badminton and weightlifting. Chinese athletes made impressive progress in fencing and women's cycling, wrestling and archery. Moreover, major breakthroughs were made in track and field, swimming, rowing and canoeing.

In the pool, 20-year-old world champion Luo Xuejuan proved her prowess once again in the women's 100m breaststroke when she won the event with a convincing time of 1:06.64 at Athens' Olympic Aquatic Centre.

Hurdler Liu Xiang from Shanghai made history in the Greek capital when he struck gold in the men's 110m hurdles final in a world record-equalling time of 12.91secs. His woman compatriot Xing Huina followed suit in the women's 10,000m by beating a number of world ace runners, including Ethiopia's Ejegayehu Dibaba and double Olympic champion Derartu Tulu, to win the title.

Meng Guanliang and Yang Wenjun demonstrated perfect teamwork in the men's C2 500m canoe, while another Chinese pair Li Ting and Sun Tiantian won China's first gold medal in the women's doubles in tennis.

Special mention should also be made of the Chinese women's volleyball team which, by regaining the Olympic title after 20 years' hard efforts, was cited as a good example of fighting spirit and high moral.

The remarkable achievements made by the Chinese Olympians in Athens has greatly boosted the confidence of the Chinese sports community and helped laid down a solid foundation for sustainable development and further improvement of the nation's overall strength in competitive sports, particularly in the lead-up to the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008.

27th Olympic Games: Sydney 2000

Date: 15 September - 01 October 2000
NOCs (Nations): 200
Athletes: 10,651 (4,069 women, 6,582 men)
Sports: 28
Events: 300
Volunteers: 46,967
Media: 16,033 (5,298 written press, 10,735 broadcasters)

The Sydney 2000 Games were the largest yet, with 10,651 athletes competing in 300 events. Despite their size, they were well organised, renewing faith in the Olympic Movement. Birgit Fischer earned two gold medals in Kayak to become the first woman in any sport to win medals 20 years apart. Judoka Ryoko Tamura lost in the final in both Barcelona and Atlanta, but came back to win the gold medal in Sydney. Steven Redgrave became the first rower to win gold medals at five consecutive Olympics. The US softball team won in stirring fashion, losing three games in a row and then coming back to defeat each of the teams they had lost to.

From 15th, Sep. 2000 to 1st, Oct. 2000, over 11,000 athletes from 200 delegations from countries world-wide participated in the competition in 300 events of 28 sports at the 27th Olympic Games - the last Olympic Games in the 20th century - held in Sydney, Australia. A total of 34 world records were set, in addition to 77 Olympic records, and three Olympic best results.

A change has come about to the competitive structure of these Olympics. Besides delegations from the USA and Russia, remaining in the First Group, strong and powerful as ever, China ranked third, both in totality of its gold medal tally and in the overall medal achievement for excellent performance. China was awarded 28 gold, 16 silver and 15 bronze medals. This was indeed a historical breakthrough! That three Chinese athletes set eight world records, 12 times, and a further six athletes set 11 Olympic records, underlines the great improvement for China over the four previous Olympics, and outstripped the total number of both gold medals and other medals won in the all past Olympics.

Seven athletes continued to hold the titles in nine events. Twenty-nine athletes won gold medals for the first time in 18 events. Attainments in competitions such as fencing, cycling and the like, reached a higher level.

Tao Luna, making her debut in the Olympics, obtained the first gold medal for China.

The veterans, Xiong Ni and Fu Mingxia, reached the peak of their career again gaining honours for China, they retired only to resurface again! Fu Mingxia, moreover, became one of the athletes to obtain four gold medals in diving.

The men's gymnastics team realized their gold medal dream after 47 years of untiring effort.

The Chinese women's hockey team, giving their first performance in the Olympics, finished fifth by beating the former world champions Holland and the former world runners-up Germany.

The Chinese women's soccer team, though not through to the four strongest world teams as hoped, still won the spectators' and overall respect for their fight-it-out spirit.

September 22 has been named China Day because of the six gold, three silver and one bronze medals which were won during the Sydney Olympics.

26th Olympic Games: Atlanta 1996

Date: 19 July - 04 August 1996
NOCs (Nations): 197
Athletes: 10,318 (3,512 women, 6,806 men)
Sports: 26
Events: 271
Volunteers: 47,466
Media: 15,108 (5,695 written press, 9,413 broadcasters)

The 1996 Games were given a dramatic start when the cauldron was lit by Mohammad Ali. A terrorist bomb killed one person and injured a further 110 people, but the Atlanta Games are best remembered for their sporting achievements. A record-setting 79 nations won medals and 53 won gold. Carl Lewis became only the fourth person to win the same individual event four times and the fourth person to earn a ninth gold medal. Naim Suleymanoglu became the first weightlifter to win a third gold medal. Michael Johnson smashed the 200m world record to complete a 200m and 400m double.

The Centennial Olympic Games held in Atlanta, the United States, in August 1996 saw a large gathering of athletes from 197 countries and regions around the world. After 16 days of competitions, China collected 16 golds, 22 silvers and 12 bronzes, ranking fourth both in gold medals tally and in the total number of medals won.

China missed the gold in some of the events in which it excelled. This was compensated by victories in other eventss through the unremitting struggles of its contestants. But success or failure, the Chinese participants' untiring efforts and go-getting spirit did win the hearts of spectators on the scene and TV viewers the world over.

Woman judoist Sun Fuming made a good start for the Chinese sports delegation in Atlanta by taking the gold medal in the +72kg heavyweight judo on the first day of competition. Le Jingyi, a swimmer from Shanghai, won the women's 100m freestyle in 54.50secs, a new Games record.

Of the 15 new world records set in weightlifting, nearly two-thirds of the total of the whole Games, four were set by the Chinese lifters. In the men's 59kg category, China's Tang Lingsheng was almost a dark horse. As a fifth-place finisher in the two-lift total at the World Championships held in Guangzhou in 1995, Tang had only been expected to maintain the fifth place and, should everything go fine with him, earn a bronze medal in Atlanta. However, he not only emerged the winner but also toppled the world mark of 305kg set by Bulgaria's N. Peshalov in 1993. In the men's 70kg class, China's Zhan Xugang led silver medallist Kim Myong-Nam of Democratic People's Republic of Korea by 12.5kg and bronze-medallist A. Feri of Hungary by 17.5kg, in addition to setting three world records to make his gold medal all the more valuable.

18-year-old diver Fu Mingxia proved his superiority in both the women's 3m springboard and 10m platform diving and rose as a new "queen of diving" since the retirement of Gao Min after the Barcelona Olympics. Her teammate Xiong Ni, a silver medallist at the '88 Seoul Olympics, clinched the men's 3m springboard title after training hard for eight long years.

In men's gymnastics, 23-year-old Li Xiaoshuang managed to rid himself of the enormous pressure and beat a strong field to win the first all-around gold medal for China, winning the respect of both his teammates and foreign counterparts. In badminton, China's Ge Fei/Gu Jun placed first in the women's doubles to win the first and only Olympic gold for China in badminton, with a background of 12 years' close cooperation.

In table tennis, Deng Yaping and Qiao Hong, an unrivalled duo for some six years in the women's events, repeated their high performance at the Barcelona Olympics four years before: Deng won the singles, and playing together the two of them won the doubles, once again displaying their overwhelming strength in the sport.

Wang Junxia, a fleet-footed distance runner who was awarded the coveted Jesse Owens Trophy in 1993, won the gold in the women's 5000m and the silver in the 10000m in which she held the world record. As the only athlete bold enough to risk competing in both the 5000m and 10000m, which meant a total of 20,000 metres in three days including the heats, she won the hearts of all the spectators on the scene and TV viewers around the world with her superb performances and newly-acquired smile.

Also in Atlanta, 26-year-old Lee Lai-Shan won the women's boardsailing to become the first gold medallist in the 44-year Olympic history of Hong Kong. When news of her victory reached Hong Kong, the people there were wild with joy. Upon her return home she was given a tremendous welcome, with thousands of people lining the streets to greet their heroine and celebrating "this moment of historical significance".

25th Olympic Games: Barcelona 1992

Date: 25 July - 09 August 1992
NOCs (Nations): 169
Athletes: 9,356 (2,704 women, 6,652 men)
Sports: 28
Events: 257
Volunteers: 34,548
Media: 13,082 (5,131 written press, 7,951 broadcasters)

For the first time in 20 years, every nation with a National Olympic Committee was represented. Men's basketball was open to all professionals, and the US sent a "Dream Team" that included Magic Johnson, Michael Jordan and Larry Bird. Gymnast Vitaly Scherbo won six gold medals, including a record four in one day. Derartu Tulu of Ethiopia won the 10,000m run to become the first female black African Olympic champion. Her victory lap with silver medallist Meyer, a white South African, symbolised hope for the future of the Olympic Movement.

The 25th Olympic Games was held in Barcelona in 1992 on a larger scale than ever before - with the participation of 10,251 athletes from 172 countries and areas. The Chinese sports delegation, composed of 128 sportsmen and 133 sportswomen, placed fourth in medal standing with 16 golds, 22 silvers and 16 bronzes - an achievement that was indicative of China's new progress in many sports. Take swimming for example. While none of the Chinese contestants managed to reach the top eight in this sport at the Seoul Olympics, as many as seven gold medals were won in Barcelona - in the women's events by Zhuang Yong in the 100m freestyle with 54.64 as a new Olympic record; Qian Hong in the 100m butterfly with 58.62;

Lin li in the 200m individual medley with 2:11.65 as a new world record; Yang Wenyi in the 50m freestyle with 24.79 to improve her own world record; Fu Mingxia in the platform and Gao Min in the springboard diving; and in the men's events by Sun Shuwei in the platform diving. In table tennis, the men's doubles, women's doubles and women's singles were won by Wang Tao/Lu Lin, Deng Yaping/Qiao Hong and Deng Yaping respectively. As had been promised, IOC President J. A. Samaranch awarded the women's singles prize to Deng personally. In addition, gold medals were won by Chinese athletes in shooting, gymnastics, race walking and judo, and silver medals in athletics, weightlifting, badminton and women's basketball.

24th Olympic Games: Seoul 1988

Date: 17 September - 02 October 1988
NOCs (Nations): 159
Athletes: 8,391 (2,194 women, 6,197 men)
Sports: 25
Events: 237
Volunteers: 27,221
Media: 11,331 (4,978 written press, 6,353 broadcasters)

Although the drug disqualification of sprinter Ben Johnson was the biggest story of the 1988 Olympics, the Seoul Games were highlighted by numerous exceptional performances. Christa Luding-Rothenburger, who was also a speed skater, earned a silver medal in cycling to become the only person in history to win Winter and Summer medals in the same year. Steffi Graf concluded her Grand Slam tennis season by winning Olympic gold. Greg Louganis repeated victories in both diving events. Florence Griffith-Joyner dominated the sprints. For the first time, all the medalists in dressage were women.

In 1988, the Chinese Olympians came back home from the Seoul Olympics with mingled feelings. While failing to live up to expectations in some of their strong events such as gymnastics, weightlifting and women's volleyball, they made significant breakthroughs in a few areas where they had long remained in oblivion, notably in swimming and rowing. Their medal tally, though less than what it was in Los Angeles four years before, represented no mean effort considering the unprecedentedly high standard of performance attained by the Seoul Games.

The 24th Olympic Summer Games held on September 17-October 2 attracted some 10,000 athletes from 160 countries and regions, with 237 gold medals awarded in 23 sports. The standard was so high that world and Olympic records tumbled one after another. In total, world records were broken 33 times and equalled five times, and Olympic records were shattered 227 times and equalled 42 times.

After 16 days of high-level competition, the Soviet Union ruled the roost, bagging 55 golds, 31 silvers and 46 bronzes, followed by the German Democratic Republic (37, 35, 30) and the United States (37, 31, 27). South Korea, taking full advantage of its position as the host, won 12 golds, 10 silvers and 11 bronzes to rank first in Asia and fourth on the world list.

For China, the results of five golds, 11 silvers and 12 bronzes were far from satisfactory. Compared with their performance at the 23rd Olympics, the Chinese athletes did not do so well in Seoul as they faced many more strong rivals, including those who did not show up in Los Angeles. Another reason why they failed was that they showed poor psychological preparation which did not stand them in good stead in high-calibre world competitions. However, the results basically reflected China's actual strength in competitive sports. It was only the second time for it to send its full-fledged delegation to the Olympics and its contingent was still young and inexperienced compared with most of the world sporting powers.

He Zhuoqiang, a gold medallist at the previous Olympic Games, failed to lift a weight he had successfully lifted several times before. Ace gymnast Li Ning, who had won three golds in Los Angeles, turned in a disappointing performance due to injuries. But it was a small comfort that Lou Yun took a gold in the men's vaulting horse. The women's volleyball team, which had captured the world title on five occasions in succession, first lost to the Peruvians and then suffered a dismal defeat at the hands of the Soviets. Sharpshooter Xu Haifeng who won the first gold medal in the '84 Olympics placed third in the men's air pistol. Jiang Jialiang, world champion in men's table tennis, even failed to make the semifinals.

Nevertheless, the bright side should not be overlooked. Two teenager divers, Xu Yanmei and Gao Min, brought home a gold medal each for their brilliant performances in the women's platform and springboard events respectively. Li Qing and Xiong Ni, also teenagers, collected a silver each in the women's springboard and the men's platform respectively. Their successes, plus the silver and bronze medals taken by Tan Liangde and Li Deliang in the men's springboard, filled a shining page in China's diving history.

Swimming used to be a weak sport for China, but a number of young Chinese swimmers came to the fore in Seoul, including Yang Wenyi (16 years old), Zhuang Yong (16) and Huang Xiaomin (18) , who succeeded in getting a silver each in the women's 50m freestyle, 100m freestyle and 200m breaststroke respectively. Qian Hong (17), another promising swimmer, earned a bronze in the women's 100m butterfly. Their heartening achievements helped open a new era in China's swimming history.

In table tennis, a national sport in China, though the players were not in good form, they still managed to win gold in two of the four events contested, namely Chen Jing in the women's singles and Chen Longcan/Wei Qingguang in the men's doubles.

Chinese women rowers sprang a surprise by taking a silver and a bronze in the coxed fours and coxed eights respectively. This was heart-warming news indeed, for rowing was a young sport taken up by only a limited number of people in the country. The news that woman shot-putter Li Meisu gained a bronze -- the only track and field medal for Asia at the Games -- was also heartening.

23rd Olympic Games: Los Angeles 1984

Date: 28 July - 12 August 1984
NOCs (Nations): 140
Athletes: 6,829 (1,566 women, 5,263 men)
Sports: 23
Events: 221
Volunteers: 28,742
Media: 9,190 (4,327 written press, 4,863 broadcasters)

Although a revenge boycott led by the Soviet Union depleted the field in certain sports, a record 140 nations took part. Joan Benoit won the inaugural women's marathon and Connie Carpenter-Phinney the first women's cycling road race. Carl Lewis won both sprints and the long jump and earned a fourth gold in the 4x100m relay. Pertti Karpinnen won single sculls rowing for the third time. Sebastian Coe became the first repeat winner of the men's 1,500m. Archer Neroli Fairhall was the first paraplegic athlete to take part in a medal event. She competed in a wheelchair.

With the restoration of Chinese Olympic Committee's lawful seat in the IOC and of the Chinese Sports Delegation's right to participate in the Olympics, Chinese athletes were sent to Los Angeles in 1984 for the 23rd Olympic Games. It was here that, back in 1932, China had been represented on such a meeting for the first time in history - by a single athlete, who ran out of contention and had to return home midway. Now, after a lapse of half a century, a whole delegation was dispatched to this American city in the name of the Chinese People's Republic.

The LA Olympic Games were held on an unprecedented scale, with the participation of 7,616 athletes (including 1,719 women) from 140 countries and areas. Among the high-level competitors were former Olympic champions and world record holders. The Chinese sports delegation consisted of 250 athletes, none of whom had taken part in Olympics before. As China's first full participation in Olympic Summer Games and the first important step taken by China in the sports world, the delegation aroused worldwide attention and was commented to "have brought fresh air to the Olympics." Furthermore, in sharp contrast to the old days, the first gold medal of the LA Olympics was won by a Chinese athlete named Xu Haifeng in the men's free pistol event, with the prize awarded him by IOC President Samaranch himself. As the first Olympic gold ever collected by a Chinese in the Olympic history, it was called "a break through zero" - an event that brought great joy to the whole Chinese nation. It was followed by more gold medals won by Chinese athletes, including three by gymnast Li Ning, one by the women's volleyball team and one by fencer Luan Jujie, known as "Asia's first fleurette." All in all, China earned 15 gold, eight silver and nine bronze medals and placed fourth in medal standing, as a testimony to its athletic ability.

10th-15th Olympic Games: 1936-1952

China' participation in the 10th Olympic Games in 1932, though by only one athlete, aroused worldwide attention as had not been expected by the Chinese government. At the same time, it felt quite uneasy about the public opinion that the largest country should be represented by such a tiny number of participants. In 1935, or one year before the 11th Olympics, it appropriated nearly 200,000 yuan for preparations, choosing the best athletes and opening up a number of training classes. A delegation was organized, consisting of 69 competitors for athletics, swimming, basketball, football, weightlifting, boxing and cycling; 39 observers and nine demonstrators of the traditional Chinese martial art of wushu. In addition, it was accompanied by 150 journalists and visitors to Berlin at their own expenses.

After the Olympics, the wushu demonstrators went to Denmark, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria and Italy, where they were warmly received as envoys of the Chinese people and highly acclaimed for their performances with bare hands or such ancient weapons as swords, cudgels and spears. Some of the performers later became well-known wushu masters, professors or leaders of national organizations, including Zheng Huaixian, the late president of the Chinese Wushu Association, and 89-year-old Prof. Zhang Wenguang at Beijing Physical Education University.

The observers, who were phys.ed. teachers and scholars, spent six weeks or so in Europe visiting sports facilities, studying sports management and physical training in schools and colleges — a study tour that proved very useful for their work after their return home.

As far as the Olympic competition was concerned, Chinese athletes failed to collect a single medal. All were eliminated in the preliminaries except Fu Baolu in the pole vault, holder of the then national record of 4.015m, whose best performance fell below 4m at the Berlin Olympics, and who joined the air force soon after his return home and was killed during the War of Resistance Against Japan. The Chinese made an even poorer showing in other events, finishing the marathon race, for instance, one hour behind the winner. "We were a far cry from many countries in the results and athletic abilities," wrote the Chinese Delegation in its report. "We were ridiculed as having brought back nothing but a 'duck's egg'."

No Olympic Games were held for the 12th and 13th Olympiads because of the Second World War. In 1947, China started preparations for the 14th Olympic Games slated for the next year. Selective trials and intensive training were held for 10000m, 400m and marathon races, 400m hurdles, 100m freestyle swimming, 1000m cycling, basketball and football, in the hope of tallying some points.

Nevertheless, the Kuomintang government was only lukewarm about participation in the Olympics, allotting no more than US$25,000 for it, with a deficit of US$70,000-80,000 to be collected by the delegation itself, which was thus placed in an awkward position.

On the other hand, the Chinese people and athletes in particular displayed much enthusiasm for the Olympics. Part of the needed funds were raised at home. To make up the balance, the basketball and football teams played 15 and 32 matches respectively to collect money from the gate during a four-month tour to Hong Kong, Saigon, Manila, Bangkok, Singapore, Rangoon and Calcutta, before they arrived in London in late July - just in time for the Olympic Games. To cut down expenses, the delegation brought the needed food with it, amounting to four tons for 48 persons.

The results in competitions were quite disappointing - without a single point to the delegation's credit. To do justice to the athletes, they had done their utmost. Take Lou Wen'ao for instance. He was a deaf-mute and took part in the 10000m and marathon races, during which he developed blisters all over his feet wearing a pair of ordinary shoes made of rubber soles and cloth uppers. The Chinese basketball team placed 18th among the 23 participating squads. The Chinese cyclist, He Haohua, was second in the race but fell from his bike near the finish to dash his hopes for a silver.

What was most embarrassing for the Chinese delegation was that it had to borrow money all the way back home.

For all their poor athletic performances and hardships they met with, the Chinese Olympians would never forget the British people's goodwill and friendship towards them - as expressed in the children's hunt for their autographs, the Londoners' invitations to their homes, and the royal reception at Buckingham Palace - all betokening an international understanding so important for the establishment of a peaceful society after the Second World War, after the Olympics had stopped for 12 years.

A tremendous change took place in China after the 1948 Olympics. With the overthrow of the Kuomintang government, which was rotten to the core, the People's Republic of China was established in the next year. Paying great attention to the people's health and the cause of sport, the new regime adopted a positive attitude toward the global Olympic Movement. The Chinese Olympic Committee decided to take part in the 15th Olympic Games to be held in Helsinki in 1952. A problem arose when some of the COC members who had fled to Taiwan with the Kuomintang authorities claimed to the International Olympic Committee that they, rather than the COC, should represent China at the Olympic Games. The IOC decided not to invite either side of the Taiwan Strait, to the disapproval of both.

On July 17, just two days before the opening of the Games, the IOC passed by vote a resolution to invite the COC to the Olympics as China's sole representative. The COC received the resolution and a cable of invitation from the Organizing Committee on July 18. There being no jet air transportation, it was impossible to fly the Chinese delegation from Beijing to Helsinki for the opening ceremony. To go or not to go? That was the question.The COC decided to go. Although delayed for formal competitions, the Chinese athletes arrived at the Olympic Village and hoisted their red five-starred national flag for the first time in the Olympic history, which, as pointed out by Premier Zhou Enlai, was a great victory in itself.

In 1954, at its 49th session in Athens, the IOC adopted a resolution on the official recognition of the COC and decided to invite China to take part in the 16th Olympic Games to be held in Melbourne in 1956. The COC made preparations and organized a delegation for the occasion.

It follows from this that the problem of China's representation had been solved. But something quite out of expectation happened. In the list of IOC members there appeared two Chinese NOCs. Some people in the IOC had, regardless of the resolution passed at the 49th session, had placed Taiwan in the list in violation of the Olympic Charter, an action that could not be tolerated by the Chinese athletes and people in general. This was a question of principle. The Chinese delegation, which was concentrated in Guangzhou and ready to depart for Melbourne, could not but lodge a protest and withdraw from the Olympics. There should not appear two Chinas in the world, and consequently, nor should there appear two Chinese NOCs, nor two Chinese delegations at the Olympic Games.

Thus China was barred from the 16th Olympics and also from the following five editions. This aroused universal dissatisfaction, for it is known to all that there is only one China in the world, and that is the People's Republic of China, while Taiwan is part of its territory. This is a fact accepted by the then 119 members of the United Nations. Why should China be excluded from the IOC in violation of the Olympic Charter? How could the Olympics be called a real global sports meet at a real world level without the participation of such a large country as China - a country that has made steady progress in sports, breaking world records on more than 200 occasions by the end of 1979? As a matter of course, this problem had set many personages in the IOC thinking seriously.

As a result, at a meeting held in Nagoya in 1979, the IOC Executive Board passed a resolution on the reinstatement of China in the IOC, while the Olympic committee in Taiwan can only use the name of "Chinese Taipei Olympic committee" with its flag, anthem and emblem different from the original ones. Thus, the COC was enabled to take part in the Olympics as China's representative. It immediately decided to participate in the 13th Winter Olympic Games to be held in Lake Placid, USA in February 1980 and the 22nd Olympic Games to be held in Moscow in August of the same year.

China sent 28 athletes to the United States - for the first time to any Winter Olympics - to compete in speed skating, figure skating, biathlon, and cross-country and alpine skiing. It was also represented at the following three Winter Olympics. At the 15th, the Chinese woman skater Li Yan set a new world record in both the 1000m and 1500m short-track demonstration races and earned a gold medal for the 1000m and a bronze medal for both the 500m and 1500m events. At the 16th Winter Olympics, Ye Qiaobo placed second in both the women's 500m and 1000m events, while Li Yan did the same in the 500m short-track race.

As for the 22nd Olympic Games, China made full preparations for competition in 19 of the 21 sports, indicating the great importance it attached to the occasion after an absence of 28 years from the Olympic Games since Helsinki. Owing to the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan, however, the COC and Chinese athletes, together with their counterparts in many other countries, boycotted the Moscow Olympics in their struggle against hegemony and in defence of the Olympic principles.